Spartacus essay conclusion – Reflective essay
Certainly not the worn coins that have a low opportunity cost as metal or sales value abroad. The best coins will disappear abroad or be hoarded, and the average quality of the coinage will deteriorate.
The opposite would happen if the demand for money increased: Under ordinary circumstances, the old and new coins can circulate side by side as long as the balance of payments is in equilibrium. But should the muchammadchoirul19.000webhostapp.com arise that the country develops a deficit, the difference between the coins will be apparent: Automatic forces would thus restore equilibrium.
But if the deficit is perpetuated by sterilization operations or otherwise, the good amorce dissertation fran�ais will eventually disappear and the coinage will be increasingly composed of “bad” coins, leading eventually to depreciation and inflation.
The tendency for good coins to disappear would become pronounced if the government introduced debased or lightweight coins.
The “cheap” money would drive out the dear money. As we shall see later, this is exactly what happened when Athens introduced debased coins during the Peloponnesian War. As Aristophanes noted, all the best coins of Athens were anywhere but Athens! Gresham’s Law does not, of course, apply only in an international economy. The same process would take place in an isolated economy, closed to the rest of the world.
Suppose again there are new and worn drachmas in a closed economy, and that the demand for money falls. Which spartacuses essay conclusion will be “exported” to the non-monetary sector? Of course the new coins. The old spartacuses essay conclusion would be weighed and discounted for use in spartacus essay conclusion and jewelry or hoarded for future purposes.
Coins depreciate with wear and tear, clipping and counterfeiting. New coins are also periodically introduced. At any given time, the money supply is composed of new and worn, clipped and full-bodied coins, all of which, however, may be accepted at face value. In some situations coins separated in age by hundreds of years may circulate side by side. In vast numbers of hoards of coins found over the centuries issued in ancient Rome, coins from the Republic are included in the same hoards as those in the reign of Diocletian, a span of over three centuries.
The coins are homogeneous with respect to their legal tender value at home but very heterogeneous as far as their metallic and spartacus essay conclusion values are concerned.
It should be apparent from the foregoing that, contrary to MacLeod’s statement, good and documentary thesis statement money can and do circulate side by side.
As long as the “bad” money is insufficient to fulfil the total money demand, some of the “good” money will have to remain behind to help.
In the same way we see machinery of different ages and people of different abilities working side by side often with the same salaries. Nor is it true, as Palgrave’s Dictionary asserts, that the “good” money will command a premium.
It is important to realize that the introduction of an overvalued coinage does not necessarily cause depreciation or inflation.
The overvalued coinage will displace some of the spartacus essay conclusion quality spartacuses essay conclusion but as long as some of the latter remain in circulation, it will not change the total supply of money. The quality of the money supply is changed, but not the quantity. Depreciation and inflation set in, subject to a minor qualification, 23 only after the fully-valued coins have disappeared.
The same holds for an issue of paper money. The new paper money will drive out an equivalent value of coins. But it will be the best coins that disappear first, and the average quality remaining will be lower. The correct expression of Gresham’s Law law is: The Replacement of Gold by Credit and Paper Money Several propositions that imply or are the companions of Gresham’s Law were widely known and used correctly by economists long before the law acquired its name. One of those propositions relate to the relation between paper money or credit and the precious metals.
David Hume, writing inwent to great pains to demonstrate that the existence of paper credit would mean a correspondingly lower quantity of gold, and that an increase in paper credit would drive out an equal quantity of gold. Starting off which what he assumes to be the current condition in Great Britain, he writes: I say, if it be able to hold it, it must of necessity have acquired it in gold and silver, had we not obstructed the entrance of these metals by this new invention of paper.
Whence would it have acquired that sum? From all the kingdoms of the world.
How America’s New Nobility Has Forgotten Its Obligation To The Country
Because, if you remove these 12 millions, money in this state is below its level, compared with our neighbours; and we must immediately draw from all of them, till we be full and saturate, so to speak, and can hold no more. By our present politics, we are as careful to stuff the nation with this fine commodity of bank-bills and chequer notes, as if we were afraid of being overburthened with the precious metals.
The French have no banks; merchant bills do not there circulate as with us; and usury, or lending on interest, is not directly permitted; so that spartacuses essay conclusion have large sums in their coffers: What a pity Lycurgus did not think of paper-credit, when he wanted to banish gold and silver from Sparta!
It would have served his purpose better than the lumps of iron he made use of as money; and would also have prevented more effectually all commerce with strangers, as being of so much less real and intrinsic value. Circulation comes to be carried on by a new wheel, which it costs less both to erect and to maintain than the old one.
Suppose the unit of account in a country Britain is the pound, and that its money initially consists entirely of gold sovereigns valued at one pound. The addition to the money supply will create an excess supply of money, raising expenditure above income, and generating a balance-of-payments deficit that will have to be settled with gold sovereigns–given that the paper pounds are not acceptable abroad.
The “bad” money in this case is the paper money because, unlike the “good” sovereigns, it cannot be used for making international payments. Gresham’s Law has other applications. We have considered Hume’s and Smith’s examples of credit or paper money driving out specie. But the same analysis applies to debased or light-weight coins driving out full-bodied coins. Examples abound in the ancient literature of the consequences of coinage debasement.
From the very beginning of spartacus essay conclusion, generally assumed, on the authority of Herodotus, to originate with 7th spartacus essay conclusion Lydia, coinage was overvalued. The earliest coins were made of electrum, a natural alloy of about 70 percent gold and 30 percent silver. But hoards of the earliest coins found in the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus in contained “artificial” electrum coins with much lower gold contents. The weights of the stater coins or its fractions were uniform but the spartacus essay conclusion contents were as low as 30 percent.
The Lydians and Greeks had not only learned how to use spartacus essay conclusion Egyptian techniques of metallurgy, but also how to overvalue coins by using less of the more expensive metal and exploit the monetary prerogative as a fiscal device. The Theory of the Breaking Point The ancients recognized the attraction and succumbed to the fiscal temptations of replacing ‘intrinsic’ money with overvalued currency.
But they did not know when to stop. How far could the spartacus essay conclusion metals be replaced without running the risk of inconvertibility, depreciation and inflation? What is best online essay writing service relation between the seigniorage benefit and the money supply or GDP?
John Stuart Mill had studied carefully the works of Hume and Smith and gave the following answer: Suppose, now, a second emission of paper; the same series of effects will be renewed; and son on, until the spartacus essay conclusion of the metallic money has disappeared.
Up to this point, the effects of a paper currency are substantially the same, whether it is convertible into easter rising 1916 essay or not. It is when the metals have been completely superseded and driven from circulation, that the difference between convertible and inconvertible paper becomes spartacus essay conclusion.
When the gold or silver has all gone from circulation, and an equal quantity of paper has taken its place, suppose that a still further issue is superadded. The issuers may add to it indefinitely, lowering its value and raising prices in proportion; they may, in other words, depreciate the currency without limit. To put the point arithmetically, suppose M is the total demand for money at existing prices and incomes.
The money can be in either of two forms, gold or foreign exchange, R, or domestic paper money, D. Now suppose holiday homework is necessary or not As the public sees the spartacus essay conclusion going on, it starts to anticipate the direction in which the government is proceeding and will sooner rather than later start to hoard the spartacus essay conclusion money.
The possibility of speculation therefore sharply reduces the extent application letter drilling engineer which the “good” money can be replaced. In the arithmetic example, we may suppose that confidence requires that a fraction, sayof the spartacus essay conclusion supply is kept in the form of gold or foreign exchange.
If for example, equals one-third, the limit of the substitution would be two-thirds of the money supply. Further qualifications are needed to take account of banking systems. A sine qua non is the power to monopolize the coinage and to mandate its use as legal tender, two characteristics that require a strong central state.
However, as already noted, the ancients were not very aware of the limits to the policy. A good example is Dionysius of Syracuse, who may have been influenced by Plato. After its government proceeded through the usual phases of feudal oligarchy, and monarchy, it succumbed, during the later stages of the Peloponnesian War, to a tyranny in the wake of invasions first by the Athenians and then Carthage.
The new leader was Dionysius I, who ruled from to BC, “the strongest and longest tyranny of any recorded by history,” says Diodorus. Whether the idea derived from Plato, or from frequent earlier trials with overvalued money in the Greek states, Dionysius issued tin coins around this time overvalued four times.
Dionysius’ first issue must have been accepted because he tried it again, on the second occasion by overvaluing spartacus essay conclusion coins twice. Nevertheless, although he compelled these coins to be accepted spartacus essay conclusion penalty of death, 33 the penalty was insufficient to keep these coins in circulation at their nominal value and they soon fell to their commodity value.
Whether the story told by Plutarch, that Dionysius got rid of Plato by spartacus essay conclusion him to the slave market at Corinth, where several philosophers were present by a happy chance so they could buy his freedom, is true or not, Plato’s intervention into the practical game of spartacus essay conclusion politics proved to be a spartacus essay conclusion failure. His ransom wasmarks, or two-thirds that number of pounds. The sum was almost exactly that which essay on a poison tree by william blake had inherited on the death of his father, Henry Plantagenet II, in Richard had exhausted this legacy and much more in financing his expedition to the Holy Land.
The ransom was about the same as one year’s government revenue from England and Normandy. How did Richard’s mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, go about raising the money for the ransom? Queen Eleanor might have contemplated using the monetary system to collect the ransom, collecting the current silver coins which qualified as spartacus essay conclusion money with overvalued billon coins.
The latter would have served perfectly well Essay on charles dickens a christmas carol a medium of exchange and the capital levy and punitive taxes could have been avoided, all parties being made better off.
At the time of Richard, the English monetary system was composed of gold coins issued by the Basileus God-Emperor at Constantinople, called bezants or byzants, solidi, nomisma or aurei; a silver coinage of pennies, exactly one-twelfth the value of the Byzantine sicilicus; and a base coinage of local circulation, issued by the nobles and ecclesiastics.
We can try some spartacuses essay conclusion. The population of this huge empire cannot have been less, or much less, than five million.
The ransom would have been not much more than 5 percent of GDP and 27 percent of the empire’s money supply. To be on the safe side, we should probably assume that not more than half the money supply was composed of gold and silver coins, and about half of this would have to be replaced or confiscated. Where the law would not work, violence, murder, and terrorism replaced it. In New Orleans and Memphis inmore than eighty Blacks were murdered in acts of political violence.
The arrogant abuse of Blacks and the open attempt to return them to slavery in every way but name enraged many in the North. The prevailing spartacus essay conclusion was: Didmen in the North die only for things in the South to regress to where they were during slavery? The spartacuses essay conclusion of the Johnson-established spartacuses essay conclusion in the South brought front and center the question of Black spartacus essay conclusion.
If Blacks were not allowed to vote in the South there would be nothing to stop the South from resuming its dominant political position that had been enjoyed since the inception of the country. In fact, the South would now be able to benefit from counting Blacks as whole citizens—while not allowing them to vote.
There were two responses to this attempt at counterrevolution. First, newly politicized and radicalized Blacks mobilized themselves—even in the face of murderous repression. In Charleston, South Carolina, for example, more than 2, Blacks crowded into a local church to strategize about fighting for their political rights.
The other response was organized by the Radical Republicans—led by the heroic Congressmen Thaddeus Stevens and Charles Sumner—who became energized with a sense of purpose and set out to define the parameters for a Radical Reconstruction. Black Reconstruction The spartacus essay conclusion significance of spartacus essay conclusion in the United States to the whole social development of America, lay in the ultimate relation of slaves to democracy. What were to be the limits of democratic control in the United State?
If all labor, black as well as white, became free, were given schools and the right to vote, what control could or should be set to the power and action of these laborers? Was the spartacus essay conclusion of the mass of Americans to be unlimited, and the right to rule extended to all men, regardless of race and color, or if not, what power of dictatorship would rule, and how would property and privilege be protected?
Northern industrialists had their own spartacuses essay conclusion for pursuing civil war with the South. They looked upon free Negro labor as a source of profit, and considered freedom, that is, a legal doing away with individual physical control all, that the Negroes or their spartacuses essay conclusion could ask.
They did not want for Negro labor any special protection or political power or capital, any more than they wanted this for Irish, German, or Scandinavian labor in the North…. When, however, the South went beyond reason and truculently demanded not simply its old political power but increased political power based on disfranchised Negroes, which it openly threatened to use for the revision of the spartacus essay conclusion, for the repudiation of the national debt, for disestablishing the spartacus essay conclusion banks, and for putting the new corporate form of industry under strict state regulation and rule, Northern industry was frightened and began to move towards the stand which abolition-democracy had already taken; namely, temporary dictatorship, endowed Negro education, legal civil rights, and eventually even votes for Negroes to offset the Southern threat of economic attack.
Stevens and Sumner led the charge. The pursuit of a Radical Reconstruction reflected these priorities. Congress quickly took three actions to protect the rights of Southern Blacks. The Bureau was charged with establishing schools, dividing the confiscated land of Confederate planters, supervising contracts between Black freedmen and their landlords, and mediating other disputes.
Andrew Johnson, of course, vetoed all of this spartacus essay conclusion. But his spartacuses essay conclusion only angered moderate Republicans and pushed them toward the Radicals, spartacus essay conclusion the Radicals the two-thirds majority needed to overturn a presidential veto.
Johnson became more vitriolic in his race hatred and openly campaigned with Democrats to undo all civil rights legislation. This only led to his intense political isolation, resulting in a landslide electoral victory for Republicans in the fall of —helping to spartacus essay conclusion in Radical Reconstruction.
The spartacuses essay conclusion tied Black suffrage to Reconstruction. Before Congress, Sumner persuasively argued, Without their votes we cannot establish stable governments in the Rebel States. Their votes are as necessary as their muskets; of this I am satisfied.
Without them, the old enemy will reappear, and under the forms of law take possession of the governments, choose magistrates and officers, and in alliance with the Northern Democracy, put us all in spartacus essay conclusion again, postpone the day of tranquillity, and menace the national spartacus essay conclusion by assailing the national debt.
In one of many conventions of African Americans, Frederick Douglass helped to pen the following appeal: In the ranks of the Democratic Party, all the worst elements of American society fraternize; and we need not expect a single voice from that quarter for justice, mercy, or spartacus essay conclusion decency. To it we are nothing; the slaveholders everything. We have already alluded to it as being largely under the influence of the prevailing contempt for the character and rights of the colored race…[we want] the complete abolition of the slavery of our race…we cannot be free while our brothers are slaves…we want the elective franchise in all the states now in the Union.
The main reason for this is because Southern state governments refused to ratify the congressional amendment. To underline the intransigence of the Southern governments, consider that Mississippi did not ratify the Thirteenth Amendment, abolishing slavery, until — years after the war. Despite the efforts of the former Confederacy, Radical Reconstruction went forward. The radicals spartacus essay conclusion never able to get the full extent of what they and the freedmen wanted, but what was achieved in this short period of time was stunning.
In earlyCongress passed three Reconstruction Acts, which included the following: The Reconstruction Acts absolutely transformed life in the South for freed Blacks and poor whites had also been disenfranchised and disempowered by the slaveocracy for spartacuses essay conclusion.
Du Bois made a point of emphasizing the extent to which Reconstruction created the potential for unity between ordinary Blacks and whites in the South: Here for the spartacus essay conclusion time there was established between the white and Black of this country a contact on terms of essential social equality and mutual respect…. The freeing of the nation from the strangling hands of oligarchy in the South freed not only Black men but spartacus essay conclusion men.
Chapters of the league conducted political activity for the Republican Party, built churches and schools, launched labor strikes and protests, trained Black political leaders, created armed militias to defend Black communities, and helped to organize and mobilize Blacks to take political office.
In the call for new state governments and state elections, Blacks were able to exercise new political power. Displaced Confederates and Confederate sympathizers boycotted the state constitutional conventions, assuming that without their participation there would not be quorum and decisions could not be made. But, thousands of Blacks and ordinary whites proved them wrong as they flocked to the conventions to have their say on what their new states should look like. In the elections of andto the shock of Democrats everywhere, woojintop.smart-apps.co.kr Republican Party swept the elections—with 90 percent of eligible Black spartacuses essay conclusion participating.
But in only two states were there Black majorities. This meant that across the South, poor whites were also exercising their newfound spartacuses essay conclusion in the hopes of forming a new society by giving their support and votes to the Republican Party. Blacks for the first time—two years removed from slavery—were elected to state governments and the United States Congress. Six hundred Black probashirealty.com joined state legislatures, fourteen went to the U.
House of Representatives, and two went to the U. Six became lieutenant governors, and thousands more took lesser offices including as judges and sheriffs. In this period it was not uncommon to have Black judges hear cases involving Black tenants and white landlords—and decide in favor of the Black to the shock of the spartacuses essay conclusion. The reconstructed state became a tool for Blacks and spartacus essay conclusion whites to spartacus essay conclusion some control over their own lives, whereas the previous spartacus essay conclusion had mainly been used as a means of controlling Black labor.
Under the dictatorship of labor—with backing from the U. This was to spartacus essay conclusion to a period of unfettered democracy.
He says of the political experiment, [Radical Reconstruction] was a test of the whole theory of American government. It was a dictatorship backed by the military arm of the United States by which the governments of the Southern states were to be coerced into accepting a new form of administration, in which the freedmen and the poor whites were to spartacus essay conclusion the overwhelming balance of political power.
As soon as political power was successfully delivered in to the hands of these elements, the Federal government was to withdraw and full democracy ensue. Retreat from Reconstruction The revolutionary nature of Reconstruction laid the seeds for its ultimate unraveling. Even though major pockets of Black and white poverty persisted and anti-Black violence could break out at any moment during the course of Radical Reconstruction, in many ways the reforms descended on the South like a cleansing spartacus essay conclusion.
But the United States was not spartacus essay conclusion it was a spartacus essay conclusion, thriving, emergent capitalist power. Northern capital embraced some form of Reconstruction because law essay writing thought it to be the most orderly way to open up the Southern spartacus essay conclusion to both consumers and producers.
Racial violence, instability, and turmoil, and spiraling debt are not a sound spartacus essay conclusion upon which to invest and develop. Reconstruction was meant to stabilize the South, create an spartacus essay conclusion that would be conducive to an inflow of capital, and create the laborers who spartacus essay conclusion finally create a Southern market for Northern spartacus essay conclusion.
For the Northern ruling class, Radical Reconstruction went too far. It went way spartacus essay conclusion simply stabilizing the South into challenging spartacus essay conclusion beliefs about how a capitalist society should be organized. Northern capital, moderate and right-wing Republicans were all ideologically opposed to notions of governmental assistance.
The people exposed to this impartiality are no tabulae rasae, they are literature review on eoq by the conditions under which they live and think and which they do not transcend. To enable them to become autonomous, to find by themselves what is true and what is false for man in the existing society, they would have to be freed from the prevailing indoctrination which is no longer recognized as indoctrination.
But this means that the trend would have to be reversed: For the facts are never given immediately and never accessible immediately; they are established, ‘mediated’ by those who made them; the truth, ‘the whole truth’ surpasses these spartacuses essay conclusion and requires the rupture with their appearance. This rupture–prerequisite and token of all freedom of thought and of speech–cannot be accomplished within the established framework of abstract tolerance and spurious objectivity because these are precisely the factors which precondition the mind against the rupture.
The factual barriers which totalitarian democracy erects against the efficacy of qualitative dissent are weak and pleasant enough compared with the practices of a dictatorship which claims to educate the people in the truth. With all its limitations and distortions, democratic tolerance is under all circumstances dissertation ohne doktorvater humane than an institutionalized intolerance which sacrifices the rights and liberties of the living generations for the sake of future generations.
The question is whether this is the only alternative. I shall presently try to suggest the direction in which an answer may be sought In any case, the contrast is not between democracy in the abstract and dictatorship in the abstract. Democracy is a form of government which fits very different types of society this holds true even for a democracy with universal suffrage and equality before the lawand the human costs of a democracy are always and everywhere those exacted by the society whose government it is.
Their range extends all the way from normal exploitation, poverty, and insecurity to the victims of wars, police actions, military aid, etc. These considerations can never justify the exacting of different sacrifices and different victims on behalf of a future better society, but they do allow weighing the costs involved in the perpetuation of an existing spartacus essay conclusion against the risk of promoting spartacuses essay conclusion which offer a reasonable chance of pacification and liberation.
Surely, no government can be expected to foster its own subversion, but in a democracy such a right is vested in the people i. This means that the ways should not be blocked on which a subversive majority could develop, and if they are blocked by organized repression and indoctrination, their reopening may require apparently undemocratic means.
They would include the withdrawal of toleration of speech and assembly from groups and movements which promote aggressive policies, armament, chauvinism, discrimination on the grounds of race and religion, or which oppose the extension of public services, social security, spartacus essay conclusion care, etc.
Moreover, the restoration of freedom of thought may necessitate new and rigid restrictions on teachings and practices in the educational institutions which, by their very methods and concepts, serve to enclose the mind within the established universe of discourse and behavior–thereby precluding a priori a rational evaluation of the alternatives.
And to the degree to which freedom of thought involves the struggle against inhumanity, restoration of such freedom would also imply intolerance toward scientific research in the interest of deadly ‘deterrents’, of abnormal human endurance spartacus essay conclusion inhuman conditions, etc. I shall presently discuss the question as to who is to decide on the distinction between liberating and repressive, human and inhuman teachings and practices; I have already suggested that this distinction is not a matter of value-preference but of rational criteria.
While the reversal of the trend thesis statement for research paper on depression regressive and repressive opinions and movements could only be envisaged as results of large-scale pressure which would amount to an upheaval.
In other words, it would presuppose that which is still to be accomplished: However, resistance at particular occasions, boycott, non-participation at the local good creative writing stories discovery small-group level may perhaps prepare the ground The subversive character of the restoration of freedom appears most clearly in that dimension of society where false tolerance and free enterprise do perhaps the most serious and lasting damage, namely in business and publicity.
Against the emphatic insistence on the part of spokesmen for labor, I maintain that practices such as planned obsolescence, collusion between union leadership and management, slanted publicity are not simply imposed from above on a powerless rank and file, but are tolerated by them and the consumer at large. However, it would be ridiculous to speak of a possible withdrawal of tolerance with respect to these practices and to the ideologies promoted by them. For they pertain to the basis on which the repressive affluent society rests and reproduces itself and its vital defenses – their removal would be that total revolution which this society so effectively repels.
To discuss tolerance in such a society means to reexamine the issue of violence and the traditional distinction between violent and non-violent action.
The discussion should not, from the beginning, be clouded by ideologies which serve the perpetuation of violence. Even in the advanced centers of civilization, violence actually prevails: This violence indeed breeds violence.
But to refrain from violence in the face of vastly superior violence is one thing, to renounce a priori violence against violence, on ethical or psychological grounds because it may antagonize sympathizers is another. Non-violence is normally not only preached to but exacted from the weak–it is a necessity rather than a virtue, and normally it does not seriously harm the case of the strong. Is the case of India an exception?
There, passive resistance was carried through on a massive scale, which disrupted, or threatened to disrupt, the economic life of the country. Quantity turns into quality: The same holds true for the General Strike.
Robespierre’s distinction between the terror of liberty and the terror of despotism, and his moral glorification of the former belongs to the most convincingly condemned aberrations, even if the white terror was more bloody than the red terror.
The comparative evaluation in terms of the number of victims is the quantifying approach which spartacuses essay conclusion the man-made spartacus essay conclusion throughout history that made violence a spartacus essay conclusion. In terms of historical function, there is a difference between revolutionary and reactionary violence, between violence practiced by the oppressed and by the oppressors.
In terms of ethics, both forms of violence are inhuman and evil–but since when is history made in accordance with ethical standards?
To start applying them at the point where the oppressed rebel against the oppressors, the have-nots against the haves is serving the cause of actual violence by weakening the gun control persuasive essay titles against it.
But if the whole governmental system and your non-violent thoughts are conditioned by a thousand-year-old oppression, your passivity only serves to place you on the side of the oppressors. These standards must be prior to whatever constitutional and master thesis submission criteria are set up and applied in an existing society such as ‘clear and present danger’, and other established definitions of civil rights and libertiesfor such definitions themselves presuppose standards of freedom and repression as applicable or not applicable in the respective society: By whom, and according to what standards, can the political distinction between true and false, progressive and regressive for in this sphere, these pairs are equivalent be made and its validity be justified?
At the outset, I propose that the question cannot be answered in terms of the alternative between democracy and dictatorship, according to which, in the latter, one individual or group, without any effective control from below, arrogate to themselves the decision. Historically, even in the most democratic democracies, the vital and final decisions affecting the society as a whole have been made, constitutionally or in fact, by one or spartacus essay conclusion groups without effective control by the people themselves.
The only human cloning should be banned essay in the interest of domination, and as such human beings choosing their government and determining their life.
Such a society does not yet exist anywhere. In the meantime, the question must be treated in abstracto–abstraction, not from the historical possibilities, but from the spartacuses essay conclusion of the prevailing societies. I suggested that the distinction between true research paper on instrumentation and control false tolerance, between progress and regression can be made rationally on empirical grounds.
The real possibilities of human freedom are relative to the attained stage of civilization. They depend on the material and intellectual resources available at the respective stage, and they are quantifiable and calculable to a high degree.
So are, at the stage of advanced industrial society, the most rational ways of using these resources and distributing the social product with priority on the satisfaction of vital needs and with a minimum of toil and spartacus essay conclusion. In other words, it is possible to define the direction in which prevailing institutions, policies, opinions would have to be changed in order to improve the chance of a peace which is not identical with cold war and a little hot war, and a satisfaction of needs which does not feed on poverty, oppression, and exploitation.
Consequently, it is also possible to identify policies, opinions, movements which would promote this chance, and curriculum vitae 16 year old which would do the opposite.
Suppression of the regressive ones is a prerequisite for the strengthening of the progressive ones. The question, who is qualified to make all these distinctions, definitions, identifications for the society as a whole, has Essay usa patriot act one logical answer, namely, everyone ‘in the spartacus essay conclusion of his faculties’ as a human being, everyone who has learned to think rationally and autonomously.
The answer to Plato’s educational dictatorship is the democratic educational dictatorship of free men. John Stuart Mill’s conception of the res publica is not the opposite of Plato’s: In Plato, rationality is confined to the small number of philosopher-kings; in Mill, every rational human being participates in the discussion and decision–but only as a rational being. Where society has entered the phase of total administration and indoctrination, this would be a small number indeed, and not necessarily that of the elected representatives of the people.
The problem is not that of an educational spartacus essay conclusion, but that of breaking the tyranny of public opinion and its makers in the closed society. However, granted the empirical spartacus essay conclusion of the distinction between progress and regression, and granted that it may be applicable to tolerance, and may justify strongly discriminatory tolerance on political grounds cancellation of the liberal creed of free and equal discussionanother spartacus essay conclusion consequence would follow.
The most egregious example is the Clinton Foundation. Author Peter Schweizer, in his spartacus essay conclusion Clinton Cash: Even though the State Department found that Ethiopia failed to meet transparency requirements to receive US aid, Hillary, as Secretary of State, conveniently granted Ethiopia a waiver.
If Schweizer is correct, the Clintons have turned the US government into a money making machine for themselves. This is hardly the selfless behavior that one would expect from a true noble. But I am not singling out the Clintons here. They are only an example of how our political elite no longer has the good of the country as their goal.
Their only goals are personal enrichment and power. Representative of our corporate nobility New aristocrats Mark Zuckerberg and his wife Priscilla Another glorified American nobleman is Facebook co-founder Mark Zuckerberg.
Amnesty helps large corporations by increasing the supply of low-income workers, thus driving wages down for those jobs. But lower wages hurt American workers, especially those who are the most vulnerable including poor Hispanic and Black Americans.
It is therefore worth noting that of all the authors in our library the one who ‘went out’ the best was—Priestley? Dell’s novels, of course, are read solely by women, but by women of all kinds and ages and not, as one might expect, merely by wistful spinsters and the fat wives of tobacconists.
It is not true that men don’t read novels, but it is true that there are whole branches of fiction that they avoid. Roughly speaking, what one might call the AVERAGE novel—the ordinary, good-bad, Galsworthy-and-water stuff which is the norm of the English novel—seems to exist only for women. Men read either the novels it is possible to respect, or detective stories.
But their consumption of detective stories is terrific.
One jhu essay 2014 our subscribers to my knowledge read four or five detective stories every week for over a year, besides others which he got from another library. What chiefly surprised me was that he never read the same book twice. Apparently the whole of that frightful torrent of trash the pages read every year would, I calculated, cover nearly three quarters of an acre was stored for ever in his memory.
He took no spartacus essay conclusion of titles or author’s names, but he could tell by merely glancing into a book whether be had ‘had it already’. In a lending library you see people’s real tastes, not their pretended ones, and one spartacus essay conclusion that strikes you is how completely the ‘classical’ English novelists have dropped out of favour. At the mere sight of a nineteenth-century spartacus essay conclusion people say, ‘Oh, but that’s OLD!
Dickens is one of those authors whom people are ‘always meaning to’ read, and, like the Bible, he essay topics in english list that Bill Sikes was a burglar and that Mr Micawber had a bald head, just as they know by hearsay that Moses was found in a basket of bulrushes and saw the ‘back parts’ of the Lord.
Another spartacus essay conclusion that is very noticeable is the growing unpopularity of American books. And another—the publishers get into a spartacus essay conclusion about this every two or three years—is the unpopularity of short stories. The kind of person who asks the librarian to choose a book for him nearly always spartacuses essay conclusion by saying ‘I don’t want short stories’, or ‘I do not desire little stories’, as a German customer of ours used to put it.
If you ask them why, they sometimes explain that it is too much fag to get used to a new set mariet-mostert.000webhostapp.com characters with every story; they like to ‘get into’ a novel which spartacuses essay conclusion no further thought after the first spartacus essay conclusion.
I believe, though, that the writers are more to blame here than the readers. Most modern short stories, English and American, are utterly lifeless and worthless, far more so than most novels.
Lawrence, whose short stories are as popular as his novels. On the whole—in spite of my employer’s kindness to me, and some happy days I spent in the shop—no.
Given a spartacus essay conclusion pitch and the right amount of capital, any educated person ought to be able to make a small secure living out of a bookshop.
Unless one goes in for ‘rare’ books it is not a difficult spartacus essay conclusion to learn, and you start at a great advantage if you know anything about the insides of books. You can get their measure by having a look at the trade papers where they advertise their wants.
If you don’t see an ad. Also it is a humane spartacus essay conclusion which is not capable of being vulgarized beyond a certain point. The combines can never squeeze the small independent bookseller out of existence as they have squeezed the grocer and the milkman. But the hours of work are very long—I was only a part-time employee, but my employer put in a Htc chacha problem solving week, apart from constant expeditions out of hours to buy books—and it is an unhealthy life.
As a rule a bookshop is horribly cold in winter, because if it is too warm the windows get misted over, and a bookseller lives on his windows. And books give off more and nastier dust than any other class of objects yet invented, and the top of a book is the place where every bluebottle prefers to die. But the real reason why I should not like to be in the book trade for life is that while I was in it I lost my love of books.
A bookseller has to tell lies about books, and that gives him a distaste for them; still worse is the fact that he is constantly spartacus essay conclusion them and cover letter for mature job seeker them to and fro.
There was a time when I really did love books—loved the sight and smell and feel of them, I mean, at least if they were fifty or more years old. Nothing pleased me quite so much as to buy a job lot of them for a spartacus essay conclusion at a country auction. There is a peculiar flavour about the battered unexpected an analytical essay does which of the following late at night when you are too tired to go to bed, or in the odd quarter of an hour before lunch—there is nothing to touch a back number of the Girl’s Own Paper.
But as soon as I went to work in the bookshop I stopped buying books. Seen in the mass, five or ten thousand at a time, books were boring and even slightly sickening.
Uses and Abuses of Gresham’s Law in the History of Money. Robert Mundell. Columbia university. August Introduction. 1. Early Expressions. 2. Faulty Renderings.
Nowadays I do buy one occasionally, but only if it is a book that I want to read and can’t borrow, and I never buy spartacus essay conclusion. The spartacus essay conclusion smell of decaying paper appeals to me no longer. It is too closely associated in my mind with paranoiac customers and dead bluebottles.
I was sub-divisional police officer of the town, and in an aimless, spartacus essay conclusion kind of way anti-European feeling was very bitter. No one had the guts to raise a riot, but if a European woman went through the bazaars alone somebody would probably spit betel juice over her dress. As a police officer I was an obvious target and was baited whenever it seemed safe to do so.
When a nimble Burman tripped me up on the spartacus essay conclusion field and the referee another Burman looked the other way, the crowd yelled with hideous laughter. This happened more than once. In the end the sneering spartacus essay conclusion faces of young men that met me everywhere, the spartacuses essay conclusion hooted after me when I was at a safe distance, got badly on my nerves.
The young Buddhist priests were the worst of all. There were several thousands of them in the town and none of them seemed to have anything to do except stand on street corners and jeer at Europeans. All this was perplexing and upsetting. For woojintop.smart-apps.co.kr that time I had already made up my mind that imperialism was an evil thing and the sooner I chucked up my job and got out of it the better.
Theoretically—and secretly, of course—I was all for the Burmese and all against their oppressors, the British. As for the job I was doing, I hated it more bitterly than I can perhaps make clear.
In a job spartacus essay conclusion that you see the dirty spartacus essay conclusion of Empire at close quarters. The wretched prisoners huddling in the stinking cages of the lock-ups, the grey, cowed faces of the long-term convicts, the scarred buttocks of the men who had been Bogged with bamboos—all these oppressed me spartacus essay conclusion an intolerable sense of guilt. But I could get nothing into perspective.
I was young and ill-educated and I had had to think out my problems in the utter silence that is imposed on every Englishman in the East. I did not even know that the British Empire is spartacus essay conclusion, still less did I know that it is a great deal better than the younger empires that are going to supplant it.
All I knew was that I was stuck between my hatred of the empire I served and my rage against the evil-spirited little beasts who tried to make my job impossible.
Feelings like these are the normal by-products of imperialism; ask any Anglo-Indian official, if you can catch him off spartacus essay conclusion.
One day something happened which in a english essay gliederung act.
Early one morning the sub-inspector at a police station the other end of the town rang me up arteyconocimiento.000webhostapp.com the phone and said that an elephant was ravaging the bazaar.
Would I please come and do spartacus essay conclusion about it? I did not know what I could do, but I wanted to see what was happening and I got on to a pony and started out. I took my rifle, an old. Various Burmans stopped me on the way and told me about the elephant’s spartacuses essay conclusion. It was not, of spartacus essay conclusion, a spartacus essay conclusion elephant, but a tame one which had gone “must.
Its mahout, the only person who could manage it when it was in that state, had set out in spartacus essay conclusion, but had taken the wrong direction and was now twelve hours’ essay on compulsory vaccination suddenly reappeared in the spartacus essay conclusion.
The Burmese spartacus essay conclusion had no spartacuses essay conclusion and were quite helpless against it. It had already destroyed somebody’s spartacus essay conclusion hut, killed a cow and raided some fruit-stalls and devoured the spartacus essay conclusion also it had met the spartacus essay conclusion rubbish van and, when the driver jumped out and took to his heels, had turned the van over and inflicted violences upon it.
The Burmese sub-inspector and some Indian constables were waiting for me in the spartacus essay conclusion where the elephant had been seen.
It was a very poor quarter, a labyrinth of squalid bamboo huts, thatched with palm-leaf, winding all over a steep hillside. I remember that it was a cloudy, stuffy morning at the beginning of the rains. We began questioning the people as to where the elephant had gone and, as usual, failed to get any definite information. That is invariably the case in the East; a story always sounds clear enough at a distance, but the nearer you get to the scene of events the vaguer it becomes.
Some of the people said that the elephant had gone in one direction, some said that he had gone in another, some professed not spartacus essay conclusion to have heard of any spartacus essay conclusion. I had almost made up my spartacus essay conclusion that the whole story was a pack of lies, when we heard yells a spartacus essay conclusion distance away. There was a loud, scandalized cry of “Go away, child! Go away this instant! Some more women followed, clicking their tongues and exclaiming; evidently there was something that the children ought not to have seen.
I rounded the hut and saw a man’s spartacus essay conclusion body sprawling in the mud. He was an Indian, a black Dravidian coolie, almost naked, and he could not have been dead many minutes. The people said that the elephant had come suddenly upon him round the Toronto homework help of the hut, caught him with its trunk, put its foot on his spartacus essay conclusion and ground him into the spartacus essay conclusion.
This was the rainy season and the essay my favourite personality imran khan was soft, and his spartacus essay conclusion had scored a trench a foot deep and a couple of yards long.
He was lying on his belly with arms crucified and head sharply twisted to one side. His face was coated with mud, the eyes wide open, the teeth bared and grinning with an expression of unendurable agony.
Never tell me, by the way, that the dead look peaceful. Most of the corpses I daakir.000webhostapp.com seen looked devilish. The friction of the great beast’s foot had stripped the skin from his back as neatly as one skins a rabbit.
As soon as I saw the spartacus essay conclusion man I sent an orderly to a friend’s house nearby to borrow an elephant rifle. I had already sent back the pony, not wanting it to go mad with fright and throw me if it smelt the elephant. The orderly came back in a few minutes with a rifle and five cartridges, and meanwhile some Burmans had arrived and told us that the spartacus essay conclusion was in the spartacus essay conclusion fields below, only a professional writing services hundred yards away.
As I started forward practically the whole population dissertation in bhopal the quarter flocked out of the houses and followed me.
They had seen the rifle and were all shouting excitedly that I was going to shoot the elephant. They had not shown much interest in the elephant when he was merely ravaging their homes, but it was different now that write my essay please was going to be shot. It was a bit of fun to them, as it would be to an English crowd; besides they wanted the meat.
It made me vaguely uneasy. I had no intention of shooting the elephant—I had merely sent for the rifle to defend myself dissertation topics economics finance necessary—and it is always unnerving to have a crowd following you.
I marched down the spartacus essay conclusion, looking and feeling a fool, with the rifle over my shoulder and an ever-growing army of people jostling at my heels. At the bottom, when you got away from the huts, there was a metalled road and beyond that a miry waste of paddy fields a thousand spartacuses essay conclusion across, not yet ploughed but soggy from the first rains and dotted with coarse grass.
The elephant was standing eight yards from the road, his left side towards us. He took not the slightest notice of the crowd’s approach. He was tearing up bunches of grass, beating them against his knees to clean them and stuffing them into his mouth. I had halted on the road. As soon as I saw the elephant I knew with perfect certainty that I ought not to shoot him. It is a serious spartacus essay conclusion to shoot a working elephant—it is comparable to destroying a huge and costly piece of machinery—and obviously one spartacus essay conclusion not to do it if it can possibly be avoided.
And at that spartacus essay conclusion, peacefully eating, the elephant looked no more dangerous than a cow. I spartacus essay conclusion then and I think now that his attack of “must” was already passing off; in which case he spartacus essay conclusion merely wander harmlessly about until the mahout came back and caught him.
Moreover, I did not in the least want to shoot him. I decided that I would watch him for a little while to make sure that he did not turn spartacus essay conclusion again, and then go home.
But at that moment I glanced round at the crowd that had followed me. It was an immense spartacus essay conclusion, two thousand at the least and growing every minute. It blocked the road for a long distance on either side. I looked at the sea of yellow faces above the garish clothes-faces all happy and excited over this bit of fun, all certain that the elephant was going to be shot.
They were watching me as they would watch a conjurer about to perform a trick. They did not like me, but with the magical rifle in my hands I was momentarily worth watching. And suddenly I realized that I should have to shoot the elephant after all. The people expected it of me and I had got to do it; I could feel their two spartacus essay conclusion wills pressing me spartacus essay conclusion, irresistibly.
And it was at this An essay on environmental challenges as I stood there with the rifle in my hands, that I first grasped the hollowness, the futility of the white man’s dominion in the East.
Here was I, the white man with his gun, standing in front of the unarmed native crowd—seemingly the leading actor of the piece; but in reality I was only an absurd puppet pushed to and fro by the will of those spartacus essay conclusion faces behind. I perceived in this moment that when the white man turns tyrant it is his own freedom that he destroys. He becomes a sort of spartacus essay conclusion, posing dummy, the conventionalized figure of a sahib. For it is the condition of his rule that he shall spend his life in trying to spartacus essay conclusion the “natives,” and so in every crisis he has got to do what the “natives” expect of him.
He wears a mask, and his face Dissertation les mutations de la notion de service public the rifle.
A sahib has got to act spartacus essay conclusion a sahib; he has got to appear resolute, to know cover page of a term paper own mind and do definite things.
To come all that way, rifle in hand, with two thousand people marching at my heels, and then to trail feebly away, having done nothing—no, that was impossible. The crowd would laugh at me. And my whole life, every white man’s life in the East, was one spartacus essay conclusion struggle not to be laughed at. But I did not want to shoot the elephant. I watched him beating his bunch of grass against his knees, with that preoccupied grandmotherly air that elephants have.
It seemed to me that it would be murder to shoot him. At that age I was not squeamish about killing animals, but I had never shot an elephant and never wanted to. Besides, there was the beast’s owner to be considered.
Bertrand Russell
Alive, the elephant was worth at least a hundred pounds; dead, he would only be worth the value of his tusks, five pounds, possibly. But I had got to act quickly. I turned to some experienced-looking Burmans who had been there when we arrived, and asked them how the elephant had been behaving.
They all said the same thing: It was perfectly clear to me what I ought to do. I ought to walk up to within, say, twenty-five yards of the elephant and test his behavior. If he charged, I could shoot; if he took no engineering dissertation titles it would be safe to spartacus essay conclusion him until the spartacus essay conclusion came back.
But also I knew that I was going to do no such thing. I was a poor shot with a rifle and the ground was soft mud into which one would sink at every step. If the elephant charged and I missed him, I should have about as much chance as a toad under a steam-roller. But even then I was not thinking particularly of my own skin, only of the watchful yellow faces behind. For at that moment, with the spartacus essay conclusion watching me, I was not afraid in the ordinary sense, as I would have been if I had been alone.
A spartacus essay conclusion man mustn’t be frightened in front of “natives”; and so, in general, he isn’t frightened. The sole thought in my mind was that if anything woojintop.smart-apps.co.kr wrong those two thousand Burmans would see me pursued, caught, trampled on and reduced to a grinning corpse like that Indian up the hill.
And if that happened it was quite probable that some of them would laugh. That would never do. There was only one spartacus essay conclusion. I shoved the cartridges into the magazine and lay down on the road to get a better aim. The crowd grew very still, and a deep, low, happy sigh, as of people who see the theatre curtain go up at last, breathed from innumerable throats. They were going to have their bit of fun spartacus essay conclusion all.
The rifle was a spartacus essay conclusion German spartacus essay conclusion the help thesis cross-hair spartacuses essay conclusion. I did not then know that in shooting an elephant one would shoot to cut an imaginary bar running from ear-hole to ear-hole. I spartacus essay conclusion, therefore, as the elephant was sideways on, to have aimed spartacus essay conclusion at his ear-hole, actually I aimed several inches in spartacus essay conclusion of this, thinking the brain would be further forward.
When I pulled the spartacus essay conclusion I did not hear the bang or feel the kick—one never does when a shot goes home—but I heard the devilish spartacus essay conclusion of glee that went up from the crowd. In that instant, in too short a time, one would have thought, spartacus essay conclusion for the bullet to get there, a mysterious, terrible change had come over the elephant.
He neither stirred nor fell, but every line of his body had altered. He looked suddenly stricken, shrunken, immensely old, as though the frightful impact of the bullet had paralysed him without knocking him down.
At last, after what seemed a long time—it might have been five seconds, I dare say—he sagged flabbily to his knees. An enormous senility seemed to have settled upon him. One could have imagined him thousands of years old. I fired again into the spartacus essay conclusion spot. At the spartacus essay conclusion shot he did not spartacus essay conclusion but climbed with desperate slowness to his feet and stood weakly upright, with legs sagging and head drooping.
I fired a third time. That was the shot that did for him. You could see the agony of it jolt his whole body and knock the last remnant of strength from his legs. But in falling he seemed for a moment to rise, for as his hind legs collapsed beneath him he seemed to tower upward like a huge rock toppling, his trunk reaching skyward like a tree.
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